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Houston was chosen as the site for the Manned Spacecraft Center, with the land donated by Rice University. But by charter, Rice did not admit African American students, which jeopardized the use of federal funds for the project.
The space program galvanized the nation, yet Jim Crow laws, ossified attitudes and basic racism stood as barriers to African American participation. Thus, while the space program helped create tens of thousands of jobs, African Americans had limited opportunities to obtain them.
In addition to the 14 African-American astronauts, there have been countless more scientists, mathematicians, physicists, astronomers, doctors and engineers who have made significant scientific, engineering and medical contributions.
Take for example, Robert Shurney. A physicist from Tennessee State University, it was Dr. Shurney who designed the tires for the moon buggy used during the Apollo 15 mission in 1972. His ingenious design used wire mesh in the place of rubber to save weight yet still provide the needed flexibility.
Dr. Vance Marchbanks, a heart surgeon and medical specialist for NASA, helped develop ways to monitor astronauts' vital signs during space flight. It was Dr. Marchbanks who was responsible for John Glenn's health during America's first orbital flight.
George Carruthers, an astronautical engineer, built the camera that was carried to the moon on Apollo 16. He also designed and built a combination telescope and camera used on the shuttle missions. Some of the most enduring images from space were made us ing Dr. Carruthers' cameras.
Christine Darden, a mathematician and mechanical engineer, has been with NASA since 1966. Dr. Darden is a recognized leader in the reduction of shock waves from spacecraft wings and nose cones.
Patricia Cowings, a psychologist from the University of California, has been conducting NASA space flight research for more than 20 years. Dr. Cowings was instrumental in developing ways astronauts could use biofeedback to reduce space sickness and headaches in space.
Meanwhile, African-American astronauts have played important roles and even led some of the most demanding and dangerous space missions. Guion Bluford, a former Air Force pilot and first African-American in space, logged 688 hours over four space shuttle missions, beginning with his first flight in 1983.
He was followed by Frederick Gregory, another Air Force pilot, and graduate of the Air Force Academy, who made his first space flight in 1985. Gregory went on to command Space Shuttle Discovery in 1989 and served as mission commander of the Space Shuttle Atlantis in 1991.
Charles Bolden, a graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy and Major General in the Marine Corps, logged two space shuttle missions in 1986 and 1990 before serving as mission commander on Atlantis in 1992 and Discovery in 1994.
Mae Jemison was the first African-American woman in space. During an eight-day mission on Endeavor in 1992, she conducted space-sickness experiments and conducted research on bone loss in zero gravity. In addition to a B.S. in chemistry and a degree in medicine, Dr. Jemison also holds a degree in African-American studies.
Dr. Bernard Harris, flight surgeon on the Columbia in 1993, was the first African-American to walk in space during his flight on the Discovery in 1995. During that same mission, Harris conducted experiments on the Russian MIR spacecraft after a linkup in orbit.
Astronauts merit special attention because, in addition to bringing a special set of skills, they're also willing to risk their lives. Two of America's astronauts of African decent have made the ultimate sacrifice. Ronald McNair, a much-loved physicist from New York, was aboard the 1986 Challenger Mission that exploded above Cape Canaveral. The other was Maj. Robert J. Lawrence, who was killed in a crash during a training mission in 1967. Both were highly respected by their peers. Both believed in the space program.
Sadly, most young people would not recognize any of these names. For these African-Americans to achieve their position within the space program required extraordinary courage and perseverance. They often had to work harder and longer to soar over the set backs.
Soaring Above Setbacks was the name of a recent exhibit at Anne Arundel Community College in Maryland currated by Jim Jackson, the college's coordinator of multiethnic recruitment, a graduate of Annapolis, a licensed pilot and a space program historian. The exhibit chronicles the extraordinary accomplishments of people like Shurney, Darden and Jemison and the setbacks they had to endure.
While many would consider them exclusive, Jackson notes there are many interesting parallels between the civil rights movement and the space program. In 1957, while the nation was torn by the integration of the Little Rock schools, the country was also galvanized by the launch of Sputnik. In 1962, while the Freedom Riders were registering voters in the South, John Glenn bound us all by orbiting the earth. And, at the end of the 1960s, Americans walked on the moon while also mourning the loss of Martin Luther King.
"It's important to remember that, throughout the entire civil rights movement, there were African-Americans also involved in the space program," notes Jackson. "Blacks have always participated in the nation's progress. Black scientists, engineers and astronauts understood how important it was for African-Americans to be at the forefront of a national scientific and technological endeavor."
Ed Dwight - Selected as the first African American astronaut candidate in 1961;resigned from the Air Force in 1966 after government officials created a threatening atmosphere
Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez - First Black person and first Latino to fly in space
Charles F. Bolden Jr., Yvonne Darlene Cagle,
NASA Administrator M.D. Born in West Point, NY.
Born August 19, 1946, in Received a Bachelor of Arts in
Columbia, SC. Graduated from biochemistry from San Francisco
C.A. Johnson High School State University in 1981 and
in Columbia, SC, in 1964. a doctorate in medicine from
Received a Bachelor of Science the University of Washington in
in electrical science from the 1985. Received certification in
United States Naval Academy in aerospace medicine from the
1968 and a Master of Science in systems management School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force
from the University of Southern California in 1977. Base, TX, in 1988. Completed residency in family
Selected by NASA in May 1980. Bolden is a veteran of practice at Ghent FP at Eastern Virginia Medical
four spaceflights, with over 680 hours in space. Served School in 1992. Received certification as a senior
as Pilot on STS-61C and STS-31 and Commander on aviation medical examiner from the Federal Aviation
STS-45 and STS-60. Bolden began his duties as the Administration in 1995. Cagle was selected by NASA
12th NASA administrator and first African-American in April 1996 and is qualified for flight assignment.
administrator in July 2009. As Administrator, he leads Cagle is currently stationed at Ames Research Center
the agency to achieve NASA’s missions and goals. (ARC). She leads the ARC Astronaut Science Liaison
and Strategic Relationships, and is the Strategic
Michael Anderson Born Relationships Manager for Google and other Silicon
December 25, 1959, in Valley programmatic partnerships.
Plattsburgh, NY. Graduated
from Cheney High School in Robert L. Curbeam Jr. Born
Cheney, WA, in 1977. Received March 5, 1962, in Baltimore,
a Bachelor of Science in MD. Graduated from Woodlawn
physics/astronomy from High School, Baltimore County,
University of Washington in MD in 1980. Received a Bachelor
1981 and a Master of Science of Science in aerospace
in physics from Creighton University in 1990. Selected engineering from the United
by NASA in December 1994, Anderson flew on States Naval Academy in 1984
STS-89 and STS-107, logging over 593 hours in space. and a Master of Science in
Died on February 1, 2003, when Space Shuttle aeronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate
Columbia and the crew perished during reentry. School in 1990. Earned a degree in aeronautical and
astronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate
Guion S. Bluford Jr. Born School in 1991. Curbeam was selected by NASA in
in Philadelphia, PA, on December 1994. He flew on STS-85, STS-98 and
November 22, 1942. Received STS-116, logging over 593 hours in space, including
a Bachelor of Science in over 19 spacewalk hours during three spacewalks.
aerospace engineering from
Pennsylvania State University Benjamin Alvin Drew
in 1964; a Master of Science Born November 5, 1962, in
with distinction in aerospace Washington, DC. Graduated from
engineering from the Air Gonzaga College High School
Force Institute of Technology in 1974; a doctorate in Washington, DC, in 1980.
of philosophy in aerospace engineering with a Received a Bachelor of Science
minor in laser physics from the Air Force Institute in astronautical engineering and
of Technology in 1978; and a Master in Business a Bachelor of Science in physics
Administration from the University of Houston-Clear from the United States Air Force
Lake in 1987. Became a NASA astronaut in August Academy in 1984, and a Master of Science in aerospace
1979. Bluford is a veteran of four spaceflights science from Embry Riddle University in 1995. Drew was
and was a Mission Specialist on STS-8, STS-61-A, selected as a Mission Specialist by NASA in July 2000
STS-39 and STS-53. and attended a master’s degree program at Maxwell Air
Force Base’s Air War College. Flew on STS-118 in 2007
and STS-133 in 2011.
Jeanette J. Epps Born in Syracuse, NY.
Graduated from Thomas J. Corcoran High
School, Syracuse, NY, in 1988. Received a
Bachelor of Science in physics from LeMoyne
College in 1992 and Master of Science
and doctorate of philosophy in aerospace
engineering from the University of Maryland
in 1994 and 2000, respectively. Epps was
selected in July 2009 as one of 14 members
of the 20th NASA astronaut class. She recently graduated from
Astronaut Candidate Training, which included scientific and technical
briefings, intensive instruction in International Space Station systems,
Extravehicular Activity (EVA), robotics, physiological training, T-38 flight
training and water and wilderness survival training.
Frederick D. Gregory Born January 7,
1941, in Washington, DC. Graduated from
Anacostia High School, Washington, DC, in
1958. Received a Bachelor of Science from the
United States Air Force Academy in 1964 and
a master’s degree in information systems from
George Washington University in 1977. Selected
as an astronaut in January 1978. A veteran of
three shuttle missions, he has logged over 455
hours in space. Served as Pilot on STS-51B and was the Commander
on STS-33 and STS-44. Gregory led the agency’s Safety and Mission
Assurance effort and later the Office of Space Flight. Retired as
NASA’s Deputy Administrator in 2005.
Bernard A. Harris Jr. Born June 26, 1956, in
Temple, TX. Graduated from Sam Houston High
School, San Antonio, TX, in 1974. Received a
Bachelor of Science in biology from University
of Houston in 1978 and a doctorate in medicine
from Texas Tech University School of Medicine
in 1982. Completed a residency in internal
medicine at the Mayo Clinic in 1985. Trained
as a Flight Surgeon at the Aerospace School of
Medicine, Brooks Air Force Base, in 1988 and also received a master’s
degree in biomedical science from the University of Texas Medical
Branch at Galveston in 1996. Harris was selected by NASA
in January 1990 and is a veteran of two spaceflights, with more than
438 hours in space on STS-55 and STS-63.
Joan E. Higginbotham Born in Chicago,
IL. Graduated from Whitney M. Young
Magnet High School, Chicago, IL, in 1982.
Received a Bachelor of Science in electrical
engineering from Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale in 1987, a master’s degree
in management from the Florida Institute of
Technology in 1992, and a master’s degree
in space systems from the Florida Institute of
Technology in 1996. Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in
1996 and flew on STS-116 in 2006. Higginbotham was assigned to
fly on STS-126, but retired from NASA in November 2007 to pursue
a career in the public sector.
Mae C. Jemison, M.D. Born October 17,
1956, in Decatur, AL. Graduated from
Morgan Park High School, Chicago, IL,
in 1973. Received a Bachelor of Science
in chemical engineering (and fulfilled the
requirements for a Bachelor of Arts in African
and Afro-American studies) from Stanford
University in 1977 and a doctorate degree
in medicine from Cornell University in 1981.
Jemison was selected for the astronaut program in June 1987
and was the science Mission Specialist on STS-47 Spacelab-J with
over 190 hours in space.
Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Born October 21,
1950, in Lake City, SC. Graduated from Carver
High School, Lake City, SC, in 1967. Received
a Bachelor of Science in physics from North
Carolina A&T State University in 1971 and
a doctorate of philosophy in physics from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1976.
Presented an honorary doctorate of laws from
North Carolina A&T State University in 1978.
McNair was selected as an astronaut candidate in January 1978 and
first flew on STS 41-B, logging 191 hours in space, before he died
aboard Challenger.
Leland D. Melvin Born February 15, 1964, in
Lynchburg, VA. Graduated from Heritage High
School, Lynchburg, VA, in 1982. Received
a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from the
University of Richmond in Richmond, VA, in
1986, and a Master of Science in materials
science engineering from the University of
Virginia in 1991. Melvin was selected by NASA
in June 1998 and flew on STS-122, which
delivered the European Space Agency’s Columbus Laboratory to
the International Space Station. He flew on STS-129 in 2009. Melvin
was named Associate Administrator for the Office of Education. He
is responsible for the development and implementation of NASA’s
educational programs.
Bobby Satcher Born and raised in Hampton,
VA. Attended Denmark-Olar High School in
Denmark, SC. Received a bachelor’s degree in
chemical engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and earned a doctorate
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Satcher went to medical school at Harvard
University, came to NASA from a research post
at Northwestern University in Illinois, and was
an orthopedic surgeon in Chicago. NASA selected Satcher in 2004,
and he flew as a Mission Specialist on STS-129 in 2009.
Winston E. Scott Born August 6, 1950, in
Miami, FL. Graduated from Coral Gables High
School, Coral Gables, FL, in 1968. Received
a Bachelor of Arts in music from Florida State
University in 1972 and a Master of Science
in aeronautical engineering from the U.S. Naval
Postgraduate School in 1980. Selected by
NASA in 1992. Scott flew on STS-72 in 1996
and STS-87 in 1997. He logged a total of 24
days, 14 hours and 34 minutes in space, including three spacewalks
totaling 19 hours and 26 minutes.
Stephanie D. Wilson Born in 1966 in Boston,
MA. Graduated from Taconic High School,
Pittsfield, MA, in 1984. Received a Bachelor
of Science in engineering science from
Harvard University in 1988 and a Master
of Science in aerospace engineering from
the University of Texas in 1992. Wilson was
selected by NASA in April 1996. She completed
her first spaceflight on STS-121 in 2006.
Wilson flew again on STS-120 in October 2007 and STS-131 in 2010.
National Aeronau
https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/286592main_...ronauts_FS.pdf
Lastly, no one said what the western world has accomplished with the help of African Americans, has not been significant because obviously it has.
But since you have poor reading comprehension, what I said was 240 years of success in a world that's trillions and trillions of years old and has seen the rise and fall of many empires, it nothing but a spec in the eye of father time.
Blacks have made many contributions to what America is today. In fact, had it not been for the wealth and implosion of Africa, Europe would've still been suffering from cannibalism, poverty, disease, feudism and many other economic depressions it faced before reaping the benefits of Africa's metals, free labor and natural resources.
El Blanco needs to put down the coke and read a fcuking book for once.
The space program galvanized the nation, yet Jim Crow laws, ossified attitudes and basic racism stood as barriers to African American participation. Thus, while the space program helped create tens of thousands of jobs, African Americans had limited opportunities to obtain them.
In addition to the 14 African-American astronauts, there have been countless more scientists, mathematicians, physicists, astronomers, doctors and engineers who have made significant scientific, engineering and medical contributions.
Take for example, Robert Shurney. A physicist from Tennessee State University, it was Dr. Shurney who designed the tires for the moon buggy used during the Apollo 15 mission in 1972. His ingenious design used wire mesh in the place of rubber to save weight yet still provide the needed flexibility.
Dr. Vance Marchbanks, a heart surgeon and medical specialist for NASA, helped develop ways to monitor astronauts' vital signs during space flight. It was Dr. Marchbanks who was responsible for John Glenn's health during America's first orbital flight.
George Carruthers, an astronautical engineer, built the camera that was carried to the moon on Apollo 16. He also designed and built a combination telescope and camera used on the shuttle missions. Some of the most enduring images from space were made us ing Dr. Carruthers' cameras.
Christine Darden, a mathematician and mechanical engineer, has been with NASA since 1966. Dr. Darden is a recognized leader in the reduction of shock waves from spacecraft wings and nose cones.
Patricia Cowings, a psychologist from the University of California, has been conducting NASA space flight research for more than 20 years. Dr. Cowings was instrumental in developing ways astronauts could use biofeedback to reduce space sickness and headaches in space.
Meanwhile, African-American astronauts have played important roles and even led some of the most demanding and dangerous space missions. Guion Bluford, a former Air Force pilot and first African-American in space, logged 688 hours over four space shuttle missions, beginning with his first flight in 1983.
He was followed by Frederick Gregory, another Air Force pilot, and graduate of the Air Force Academy, who made his first space flight in 1985. Gregory went on to command Space Shuttle Discovery in 1989 and served as mission commander of the Space Shuttle Atlantis in 1991.
Charles Bolden, a graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy and Major General in the Marine Corps, logged two space shuttle missions in 1986 and 1990 before serving as mission commander on Atlantis in 1992 and Discovery in 1994.
Mae Jemison was the first African-American woman in space. During an eight-day mission on Endeavor in 1992, she conducted space-sickness experiments and conducted research on bone loss in zero gravity. In addition to a B.S. in chemistry and a degree in medicine, Dr. Jemison also holds a degree in African-American studies.
Dr. Bernard Harris, flight surgeon on the Columbia in 1993, was the first African-American to walk in space during his flight on the Discovery in 1995. During that same mission, Harris conducted experiments on the Russian MIR spacecraft after a linkup in orbit.
Astronauts merit special attention because, in addition to bringing a special set of skills, they're also willing to risk their lives. Two of America's astronauts of African decent have made the ultimate sacrifice. Ronald McNair, a much-loved physicist from New York, was aboard the 1986 Challenger Mission that exploded above Cape Canaveral. The other was Maj. Robert J. Lawrence, who was killed in a crash during a training mission in 1967. Both were highly respected by their peers. Both believed in the space program.
Sadly, most young people would not recognize any of these names. For these African-Americans to achieve their position within the space program required extraordinary courage and perseverance. They often had to work harder and longer to soar over the set backs.
Soaring Above Setbacks was the name of a recent exhibit at Anne Arundel Community College in Maryland currated by Jim Jackson, the college's coordinator of multiethnic recruitment, a graduate of Annapolis, a licensed pilot and a space program historian. The exhibit chronicles the extraordinary accomplishments of people like Shurney, Darden and Jemison and the setbacks they had to endure.
While many would consider them exclusive, Jackson notes there are many interesting parallels between the civil rights movement and the space program. In 1957, while the nation was torn by the integration of the Little Rock schools, the country was also galvanized by the launch of Sputnik. In 1962, while the Freedom Riders were registering voters in the South, John Glenn bound us all by orbiting the earth. And, at the end of the 1960s, Americans walked on the moon while also mourning the loss of Martin Luther King.
"It's important to remember that, throughout the entire civil rights movement, there were African-Americans also involved in the space program," notes Jackson. "Blacks have always participated in the nation's progress. Black scientists, engineers and astronauts understood how important it was for African-Americans to be at the forefront of a national scientific and technological endeavor."
Ed Dwight - Selected as the first African American astronaut candidate in 1961;resigned from the Air Force in 1966 after government officials created a threatening atmosphere
Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez - First Black person and first Latino to fly in space
Charles F. Bolden Jr., Yvonne Darlene Cagle,
NASA Administrator M.D. Born in West Point, NY.
Born August 19, 1946, in Received a Bachelor of Arts in
Columbia, SC. Graduated from biochemistry from San Francisco
C.A. Johnson High School State University in 1981 and
in Columbia, SC, in 1964. a doctorate in medicine from
Received a Bachelor of Science the University of Washington in
in electrical science from the 1985. Received certification in
United States Naval Academy in aerospace medicine from the
1968 and a Master of Science in systems management School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force
from the University of Southern California in 1977. Base, TX, in 1988. Completed residency in family
Selected by NASA in May 1980. Bolden is a veteran of practice at Ghent FP at Eastern Virginia Medical
four spaceflights, with over 680 hours in space. Served School in 1992. Received certification as a senior
as Pilot on STS-61C and STS-31 and Commander on aviation medical examiner from the Federal Aviation
STS-45 and STS-60. Bolden began his duties as the Administration in 1995. Cagle was selected by NASA
12th NASA administrator and first African-American in April 1996 and is qualified for flight assignment.
administrator in July 2009. As Administrator, he leads Cagle is currently stationed at Ames Research Center
the agency to achieve NASA’s missions and goals. (ARC). She leads the ARC Astronaut Science Liaison
and Strategic Relationships, and is the Strategic
Michael Anderson Born Relationships Manager for Google and other Silicon
December 25, 1959, in Valley programmatic partnerships.
Plattsburgh, NY. Graduated
from Cheney High School in Robert L. Curbeam Jr. Born
Cheney, WA, in 1977. Received March 5, 1962, in Baltimore,
a Bachelor of Science in MD. Graduated from Woodlawn
physics/astronomy from High School, Baltimore County,
University of Washington in MD in 1980. Received a Bachelor
1981 and a Master of Science of Science in aerospace
in physics from Creighton University in 1990. Selected engineering from the United
by NASA in December 1994, Anderson flew on States Naval Academy in 1984
STS-89 and STS-107, logging over 593 hours in space. and a Master of Science in
Died on February 1, 2003, when Space Shuttle aeronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate
Columbia and the crew perished during reentry. School in 1990. Earned a degree in aeronautical and
astronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate
Guion S. Bluford Jr. Born School in 1991. Curbeam was selected by NASA in
in Philadelphia, PA, on December 1994. He flew on STS-85, STS-98 and
November 22, 1942. Received STS-116, logging over 593 hours in space, including
a Bachelor of Science in over 19 spacewalk hours during three spacewalks.
aerospace engineering from
Pennsylvania State University Benjamin Alvin Drew
in 1964; a Master of Science Born November 5, 1962, in
with distinction in aerospace Washington, DC. Graduated from
engineering from the Air Gonzaga College High School
Force Institute of Technology in 1974; a doctorate in Washington, DC, in 1980.
of philosophy in aerospace engineering with a Received a Bachelor of Science
minor in laser physics from the Air Force Institute in astronautical engineering and
of Technology in 1978; and a Master in Business a Bachelor of Science in physics
Administration from the University of Houston-Clear from the United States Air Force
Lake in 1987. Became a NASA astronaut in August Academy in 1984, and a Master of Science in aerospace
1979. Bluford is a veteran of four spaceflights science from Embry Riddle University in 1995. Drew was
and was a Mission Specialist on STS-8, STS-61-A, selected as a Mission Specialist by NASA in July 2000
STS-39 and STS-53. and attended a master’s degree program at Maxwell Air
Force Base’s Air War College. Flew on STS-118 in 2007
and STS-133 in 2011.
Jeanette J. Epps Born in Syracuse, NY.
Graduated from Thomas J. Corcoran High
School, Syracuse, NY, in 1988. Received a
Bachelor of Science in physics from LeMoyne
College in 1992 and Master of Science
and doctorate of philosophy in aerospace
engineering from the University of Maryland
in 1994 and 2000, respectively. Epps was
selected in July 2009 as one of 14 members
of the 20th NASA astronaut class. She recently graduated from
Astronaut Candidate Training, which included scientific and technical
briefings, intensive instruction in International Space Station systems,
Extravehicular Activity (EVA), robotics, physiological training, T-38 flight
training and water and wilderness survival training.
Frederick D. Gregory Born January 7,
1941, in Washington, DC. Graduated from
Anacostia High School, Washington, DC, in
1958. Received a Bachelor of Science from the
United States Air Force Academy in 1964 and
a master’s degree in information systems from
George Washington University in 1977. Selected
as an astronaut in January 1978. A veteran of
three shuttle missions, he has logged over 455
hours in space. Served as Pilot on STS-51B and was the Commander
on STS-33 and STS-44. Gregory led the agency’s Safety and Mission
Assurance effort and later the Office of Space Flight. Retired as
NASA’s Deputy Administrator in 2005.
Bernard A. Harris Jr. Born June 26, 1956, in
Temple, TX. Graduated from Sam Houston High
School, San Antonio, TX, in 1974. Received a
Bachelor of Science in biology from University
of Houston in 1978 and a doctorate in medicine
from Texas Tech University School of Medicine
in 1982. Completed a residency in internal
medicine at the Mayo Clinic in 1985. Trained
as a Flight Surgeon at the Aerospace School of
Medicine, Brooks Air Force Base, in 1988 and also received a master’s
degree in biomedical science from the University of Texas Medical
Branch at Galveston in 1996. Harris was selected by NASA
in January 1990 and is a veteran of two spaceflights, with more than
438 hours in space on STS-55 and STS-63.
Joan E. Higginbotham Born in Chicago,
IL. Graduated from Whitney M. Young
Magnet High School, Chicago, IL, in 1982.
Received a Bachelor of Science in electrical
engineering from Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale in 1987, a master’s degree
in management from the Florida Institute of
Technology in 1992, and a master’s degree
in space systems from the Florida Institute of
Technology in 1996. Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in
1996 and flew on STS-116 in 2006. Higginbotham was assigned to
fly on STS-126, but retired from NASA in November 2007 to pursue
a career in the public sector.
Mae C. Jemison, M.D. Born October 17,
1956, in Decatur, AL. Graduated from
Morgan Park High School, Chicago, IL,
in 1973. Received a Bachelor of Science
in chemical engineering (and fulfilled the
requirements for a Bachelor of Arts in African
and Afro-American studies) from Stanford
University in 1977 and a doctorate degree
in medicine from Cornell University in 1981.
Jemison was selected for the astronaut program in June 1987
and was the science Mission Specialist on STS-47 Spacelab-J with
over 190 hours in space.
Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Born October 21,
1950, in Lake City, SC. Graduated from Carver
High School, Lake City, SC, in 1967. Received
a Bachelor of Science in physics from North
Carolina A&T State University in 1971 and
a doctorate of philosophy in physics from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1976.
Presented an honorary doctorate of laws from
North Carolina A&T State University in 1978.
McNair was selected as an astronaut candidate in January 1978 and
first flew on STS 41-B, logging 191 hours in space, before he died
aboard Challenger.
Leland D. Melvin Born February 15, 1964, in
Lynchburg, VA. Graduated from Heritage High
School, Lynchburg, VA, in 1982. Received
a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from the
University of Richmond in Richmond, VA, in
1986, and a Master of Science in materials
science engineering from the University of
Virginia in 1991. Melvin was selected by NASA
in June 1998 and flew on STS-122, which
delivered the European Space Agency’s Columbus Laboratory to
the International Space Station. He flew on STS-129 in 2009. Melvin
was named Associate Administrator for the Office of Education. He
is responsible for the development and implementation of NASA’s
educational programs.
Bobby Satcher Born and raised in Hampton,
VA. Attended Denmark-Olar High School in
Denmark, SC. Received a bachelor’s degree in
chemical engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and earned a doctorate
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Satcher went to medical school at Harvard
University, came to NASA from a research post
at Northwestern University in Illinois, and was
an orthopedic surgeon in Chicago. NASA selected Satcher in 2004,
and he flew as a Mission Specialist on STS-129 in 2009.
Winston E. Scott Born August 6, 1950, in
Miami, FL. Graduated from Coral Gables High
School, Coral Gables, FL, in 1968. Received
a Bachelor of Arts in music from Florida State
University in 1972 and a Master of Science
in aeronautical engineering from the U.S. Naval
Postgraduate School in 1980. Selected by
NASA in 1992. Scott flew on STS-72 in 1996
and STS-87 in 1997. He logged a total of 24
days, 14 hours and 34 minutes in space, including three spacewalks
totaling 19 hours and 26 minutes.
Stephanie D. Wilson Born in 1966 in Boston,
MA. Graduated from Taconic High School,
Pittsfield, MA, in 1984. Received a Bachelor
of Science in engineering science from
Harvard University in 1988 and a Master
of Science in aerospace engineering from
the University of Texas in 1992. Wilson was
selected by NASA in April 1996. She completed
her first spaceflight on STS-121 in 2006.
Wilson flew again on STS-120 in October 2007 and STS-131 in 2010.
National Aeronau
https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/286592main_...ronauts_FS.pdf
Lastly, no one said what the western world has accomplished with the help of African Americans, has not been significant because obviously it has.
But since you have poor reading comprehension, what I said was 240 years of success in a world that's trillions and trillions of years old and has seen the rise and fall of many empires, it nothing but a spec in the eye of father time.
Blacks have made many contributions to what America is today. In fact, had it not been for the wealth and implosion of Africa, Europe would've still been suffering from cannibalism, poverty, disease, feudism and many other economic depressions it faced before reaping the benefits of Africa's metals, free labor and natural resources.
El Blanco needs to put down the coke and read a fcuking book for once.
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