Finaly, a hockey movie thats made in America and actually looks good [Archive]

seldomTap

01-14-2004, 04:28 PM

On the whole the process of formation of the Kazakh ethnic national group came to completion in XIV-XV centuries.

By virtue of many ethnopolitical and economic factors on the territory of Kazakhstan there formed three ethnoterritorial associations - Senior, Middle and Junior Juzes. Division into juzes was the actual reflection of the complex process - formation of the Kazakh ethnic national group, it left its characteristic stamp on local cultural and every-day specifics of its development.

Kazakh Khanate shaped up in the middle of the XVth century. Extension of estates, consolidation of statehood, active foreign policy pursued by the First Khans, particularly by Kasymkhan in early XVIth century, later on gave way to ever growing intestine wars and mass roamings-off of people.

The 2nd half of the XVI century witnesses another political upswing of the Kazakh Khanate, relaxation of intestine feud, development of cattle-breeding and farming economies, progressing trade relations, increasing contacts with Russia and other contiguous countries.

The rule of Tauke-Khan is marked with compiling a code of rules of common law - "Zhety Zhargy" which specified basic principles of social law and order and state structure.

However political disunion. strivings to strengthening independence of juzes manifested by certain khans and sultans, lack of internal market - all these factors weakened the Khanate making it helpless in the face of outer enemies. From the beginning of the XVIIth century plundering raids of Jungars into Kazakh lands became ever more frequent. That's why Tauke-Khan made an effort of uniting the three Juzes. Kazakh Khanate torn apart by intestine wars and contradictions, weakened in wasting combats with the aggressor wages a desperate struggle for its independence.

The main events of the war with Jungars occur in 1723-1727 known in the history as "the years of the great disaster" ("Aktaban shobyryndy"). A decisive role in countering the Jungar aggression belongs to All-Kazakh congresses where - by virtue of the decisions of biis (tutor-guides) of all the three Juzes (Tole-bi, Kazbek-bi and Aiteke-bi) - they try to take measures to form a people's volunteer corps, a unified front of defence to counter Jungar raids. Indeed, All-Kazakh congresses contributed tangibly to the formation of the corps (1727 - at the river of Bulanty; an Anrakai battle in 1729) to retailiating Jungar aggression. No small contribution was made by the activities of folk batyrs Kabanbay, Bogenbay, Nauryzbay, Karasay, owing to Abylay's military talent, etc.

The aggravated economic and political situation generated the issue of joining Russia, a process that lasted nearly 150 years. Abulkhair, Khan of the Junior Juz exasperated by the ongoing weakening of the Kazakh Khanate as a result of the exhausting war had to accept the terms of the Junior Juz's joining Russia. Efforts of the "opposition" headed by Sultan Baraka to impede the negotiations and frustrate formalization of the act of the Junior Juz' joining Russia ended in a failure and on October 10, 1731 a part of the assembly of Kazakh elders supported the decision.

Kazakhstan's joining Russia implied incorporation, peaceful and military colonization and a naked conquest. The year of 1732 highlighted formal incorporation of a certain part of the Middle Juz by Russia. The oath sworn by a group of sultans and elders of the Junior and Middle Juzes (Abulmambet, Abylay) in 1740 stipulated joining of only a part of the Middle Juz.

Major regions of North-East and Central Kazakhstan were incorporated in the empire in the 20¾ -40s of the XIXth century being the consequence of the defeat of the national-liberation war waged by K.Kasymov and political moves undertaken by tsarism.

Seizure of Turkestan, Shymkent, Aulije-Ata and other settlements by tsarist troops in the 60s of the XIX century which required participation of quite powerful armed forces completed the conquest of the territory of the Senior Juz by Russia. Joining of Kazakhstan and - later on - that of Central Asia made it possible for Russia to successfully compete with the British Empire.

Political and economic status of Kazakhstan in the middle and the end of the XVIIIth century features the following: aggravation of internal discord in the Junior juz; expansion of economic relations with Russia; development of barter trade; aggravation of the land issue; first moves in colonial policies of tsarism in the agrarian issue.

The second half of the XVIIIth century is marked with the formation of Abylay's Khanate, the very person who was one of the organizers of effective rebuff against Jungar aggressors. He pursued a policy of double citizenship - that of both Russia and China. Indepth transformations he initiated added to consolidation of Kazakh feudal statehood, enhanced adherence to an independent policy.

Policy of manoeuvring conducted by the ruling circles of Russia strengthened its confidence in abolition of Khan's power in Kazakhstan. After Bukey (1817) and Uali-Khan (1819) died, Russia no longer appointed new khans. In 1822 by virtue of introducing the "Charter on Siberian Kyrghyzes" Khan's power in Kazakhstan was officially abolished. Instead they set up counties.

To step up colonization of the territory they introduced a Russian system of administration which resulted in a protest on the part of the Kazakh population which - subsequently - expressed itself in a national-liberation struggle of Kazakhs within the Russian empire. In sum, the Kazakh people raised the banner of freedom more than 300 times. Starting from the second half of the XIXth century Kazakhstan represents a completely shaped up colony of the Russian Empire.

Further process is characterized with an intensification of colonial forms of mastering of the territory, creation of military-supporting bases of tsarism. Development of capitalism in Russia affects the specifics of social, economic and political status of Kazakhstan. In 1867-1868 tsarism performs an administrative reform. On July 1867 Alexander the IInd signed the draft of the Regulation on Administering Semirechje and Syrdaria regions", and on October 21, 1862 - the draft of the "Regulation on Administering Turgay, Uralsk, Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk regions". Bukeyev horde became a part of the Astrakhan province.

Late in the XIXth century colonial specifics of the agrarian policy of tsarism brought about a gradual shift in the proportion of nomadic and settled population. There have shaped up new forms of economies: a settled cattle-breeding one and a settled farming one. Social differentiation of the Kazakh society becomes ever more pronounced. A part of economies comes to be envolved in market relations. Now quite typical is the engagement of impoverished Kazakhs in various industries that emerged in Kazakhstan in the last quarter of the XIXth century. Local merchants initiated a new practice of trade - they started arranging fairs. Over the last decade of the XIXth century they built some 482 km of railway lines. Development of transit trade is also underway. In context of the Kuldzha Treaty of 1851 trade links with China come to be more intensive. In commercial systems there appear elements of usury and private entrepreneurship.

By the beginning of the XXth century the following regions constituted the territory of Kazakhstan: Syrdaria and Semirechje ones (Turkestan general-governorship with the centre in Tashkent), Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Uralsk, Turgay (Steppe general-governorship with the centre in Omsk); Mangyshlak - Transcaspian region; Inner (Bukeyev) Horde (in the Astrakhan province).

Further intensification in colonization of Kazakhstan is closely associated with capitalist relations increasingly penetrating Kazakhstan. It brings along sharp class differentiation in the countryside, mass impoverishment, greater involvement of people in various industries and budding protest against colonial and social oppression becomes ever more pronounced.

First uprisings are of spontaneous and uncoordinated nature though. In 1905-1907 there spring up sporadic social-democratic groups (mostly on the initiative of political exiles). The year of 1907 signified commencement of the realization of the Stolypin's reform and adoption of the "Law on election to the State Duma" which resulted in depriving nations of Siberia, Central Asia and Kazakhstan of their electoral rights. There occurs ever growing intensification of the process of emigration of peasants from the European part of Russia to its outlying districts in context of settling the land problem in the metropoly. Consequently they withdraw pasture areas from nomadic cattle-breeding economies (by 1917 there have been withdrawn over 40 mln dessiatinas (1 dessiatina = 2.7 acres).

Colonial oppression weighed hard on the living standards of the Kazakh people. Ever growing taxes and duties, land withdrawal generate aggravation of internal contradictions in the Kazakh countryside, a crisis in cattlebreeding economies.

Invariably, social and economic conditions generated prerequisites for a rising national movement. On the scene of the struggle for leadership there appears traditional elite and nascent Kazakh intelligentsia. A. Bukeikhanov places himself at the head of the all-national liberal and democratic opposition. In context of reawakening of national awareness there occurs consolidation of Turkic-speaking nations. In 1913-1918 they issue a newspaper "Kazakh".

Russia's taking part in the WWI triggered a universal economic crisis. There form obvious prerequisites for a struggle of Kazakhs for their freedom and independence. The tsar's Decree of June 25, 1916 on requisition of Kazakhs for works in the rear served a natural pretext for the national-liberation war waged by Kazakhs in 1916. B.Ashekeyev, A.Imanov, A.Zhanbosynov, T.Bokin and others stood at the head of this movement.

The war of 1918 crowns the national-liberation movement of Kazakhs within the Russian Empire. Victorious February revolution in Russia brought about an overthrow of the tsarist government. It was a period of dual power in the country: the power of the proletariat and peasantry represented by the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the power of bourgeoisie and land-lords represented by the Provisional Government.

Upon the overthrow of tsarism, in Kazakhstan too, they started organizing Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. It went on hand in hand with the emergence of bodies of bourgeois power: all sorts of "executive committees", "civil committees", regional or district commissars appointed by the Provisional Government.

Victory of the February revolution and the development of revolutionary movement spanning February and October of 1917 triggered a tendency when various strata of the Kazakh society came to be actively envolved in politics, in setting up all sorts of political, professional and youth organizations. In process of ever growing revolutionary movement and rising class differenciation they came close to settling immediate problems of class, social and political import: some followed the banner of Bolshevism and Socialist revolution - others the banner of the "Alash" party to uphold the idea of shaping up a Kazakh national autonomy within the framework of a bourgeois-and-democratic Russia.

Organizationally, the party of "Alash" was formalized at the first All-Kazakh congress in Orenburg in July 1917. It was in fact a party of liberal orientation. Establishment of Soviet power in Kazakhstan took several months: from late October 1917 to March 1918. The party of "Alash" and its leaders would not welcome the October revolution: on December 5-13, 1917 in Orenburg they convened the second All-Kazakh congress that announced formation of a bourgeois autonomy under the name of "Alash" and setting up of a government represented by a "provisional people's council" named "Alash-Orda".

In the period spanning late October 1917 and March 1918 Soviet power was established mostly in cities and other more or less significant settlements of Kazakhstan. The process of establishment of Soviet Power in most of the Kazakhstani countryside went on up to the very beginning of the Civil war.

Armed struggle in Kazakhstan was part and parcel of the Civil war waged by the whole of the country. It was thrust upon by overthrown parasitic classes and foreign imperialists. For this reason hostilities in Kazakhstan were of less importance compared with the situation on the main fronts of the Civil war. In March 1919 VTsIK (All-Russia Central Executive Committee) of the RSFSR announced amnesty to the "Alash-Orda". In those days Turgay group of the "Alash-Orda" headed by A.Baitursynov turncoated to support Soviet power. On August 26, 1920 they formed an Autonomous Kyrghyz (Kazakh) SSR within the RSFSR.

The victory over the interventionists and the White Guardists made it possible to proceed with peaceful economic construction. March 1921 signified the beginning of the transition to the new economic policy which enhanced development of agriculture because at that time producers were really interested in the benefits derived from their labour.

The end of the 20s-30s is marked with an upsurge of peasant uprisings to counter forced collectivization which brought about mass deaths of people. "Kazakhstani tragedy" - such is the name of this man-made disaster in history. The 30s is the period of establishment of totalitarianism in Kazakhstan which entailed massive political repressions, ever-present and omnipotent in all spheres of social and political life.

In 1939-1941 Kazakhstan is transformed into a major basis for production of non-ferrous metals, coal, oil, it becomes a region of developed agriculture.

In 1941-1945 Kazakhstan comes to be envolved in the WWII, more particularly in the Great Patriotic war against the invasion of fascist Germany. In this period practically all Kazakhstani enterprises put out only defence produce. Major industrial facilities and cultural establishments are being evacuated to Kazakhstan from western and central areas of the USSR. The war years are filled with the selfless heroic labour of millions of Soviet people in industries and agriculture. In WWII Kazakhstan lost nearly 425,000 people. The Republic played host to hundreds of thousands of evacuated people;

whole nations subjected to deportation amounted almost to 2,000,000 people.

In 1946 again, the economy of the country is transferred onto "peaceful rails". Particularly accelerated was the erection of enterprises of construction industry, they laid the foundation of the power engineering basis of the industry. June 1946 marked inauguration of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR.

Late 40s - early 50s highlight consolidation of the administer-and-command system. There extends the network of GULAG camps (i.e. camps of the Main Directorate of Corrective Labour Camps): Karlag, Steplag, ALZHIR and others. Not infrequently there occur repressions against certain scientists, representatives of intelligentsia and others.

In 1954 top leaders of the country launch a campaign of massive development of virgin and fallow lands which entails a new influx of people arriving from other republics of the USSR, they boost up housing construction, that of cultural and mass facilities.

The years of the 50s - 80s are those coloured with the struggle between the party-and-state bureaucracy and the people. This 30-year span is characterized by an offensive against the bureaucracy (so called "Khruschev's thaw") and the bureaucratic retaliation (L.I. Brezhnev, K.U. Chernenko) which brought about a stagnation in the Kazakhstani society.

The above process coincides in time with a crisis that burst out in economics. There occurs a rise in monetary revenues of the population which outpaces that of the commodity mass resulting in an overall shortage of goods. By mid-80s expediency of radical changes in the Soviet society have become as obvious and compelling as never before. A certain part of the political leadership of the country was well aware of the necessity of urgent in-depth transformations which would help overcome negative phenomena in the development of the USSR.

The course of social and economic transformations announced by Mikhail Gorbachov when he became the topmost leader of the USSR, betrayed, initially, the same tendency as the efforts of his predecessors who did their utmost - when ascending to power - to present themselves as exceedingly active democratic reformers. The system of social, economic and political actions aimed at reforming the society remained in history as a notorious "perestroika".

An altogether new political atmosphere was swelling up in the country. There sprang up all sorts of plentiful controversial social movements, unofficial organizations; all in all the situation displayed all prerequisites for a transfer to a multi-party system. At every meeting or a demonstration, in the electorate clubs they would discuss topical issues of everyday life, compelling problems of the country's development.

A graphic manifestation of a clash, a sharp struggle between the old and the new mentality was the well-known developments that took place in December 1986 in Alma-Ata. Young people came out to the square to express a universal protest against the methods resorted to by the administer-and-command system which - as of old - demonstrated utter disregard to the opinion of the population of the Republic. The very life proved complete groundlessness of rash and indiscriminate charges in nationalism advanced against the whole of the Kazakh nation.

Elections of the USSR people's deputies held in spring 1989 proved to be very important in context of eventual transition to genuine democracy. For the first ever time they were conducted on the basis of alternative nomination and voting accompanied by political competition.

The day of August 19, 1991 - the day of the abortive attempt of a coup. President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan addresses the people of Kazakhstan. They issue Presidential Decrees "On the formation of the Security Council of the Kazakh SSR", "On the transition of state-owned enterprises and organizations of Union subordination into that of the Government of the Kazakh SSR", "On establishing the gold and diamond fund of the Kazakh SSR", "On closing of the Semipalatinsk nuclear testing grounds", etc. In September 1991 there has been adopted a decision about disbandment of the Kommunist Party of Kazakhstan.

Ongoing exacerbation of the economic crisis is underway. There spring up new bank-like entities. Inflation is on the rise accompanied by an ever aggravating decline in the living standards of the majority of the population. Such were the conditions in which the authorities embarked on the road of developing market economic relations.

On December 16, 1991 they pass the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Independence (a law of a Constitutional Law effectiveness). On announcing its independence the Republic of Kazakhstan has come to represent a politically independent state with a multinational structure and a single monolith organization. On August 30, 1995 at the all-national referendum they adopted the currently effective Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

At the moment major world companies open their representations in the Republic, we witness an intensive increase in the number of joint ventures, they elaborate and implement projects of joint development of natural resources and processing raws and materials, introduction of advanced technologies in the agrarian sphere, etc.

Tremendous natural resources of Kazakhstan, social and political stability in the Republic make this region one of the most attractive objects of capital investments among other republics of the late Soviet Union.

Republic of Kazakhstan has become a full-fledged equal member of the world community to enjoy universal recognition and support of absolute majority of the states of the world. As of today Kazakhstan has been recognized by 113 states including 105 ones that maintain diplomatic relations with Kazakhstan.

Today we witness consolidation of interaction, extension of cooperation with most authoritative international agencies. Among them is the UNO, the European Community, the International and European Banks for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, the IAEA, the IFRCRCS, the UNICEF, the UNESCO, the WHO, etc. The Republic has acceeded to more than 40 international conventions, it has signed almost 400 multilateral and over 700 bilateral agreements and treaties.

In 1997 there has been adopted a decision on transferring the capital of the country from Almaty to Akmola, the circumstance conditioned by geopolitical and economic considerations of Kazakhstan's development.

Finally, there has been elaborated and adopted for realization a Programme "On measures for realization of Kazakhstan's development up to 2030".